Civilization: The West and the Rest by Niall Ferguson
This post is a summary of a book I’ve read. When I summarise a book, I try to capture the intent of the author, rather than insert my personal opinion on their arguments. These notes are in no way an endorsement of the book or author. I frequently read books and authors I disagree with.
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Highlights
No country that wishes to become developed today can pursue closed-door policies. We have tasted this bitter experience and our ancestors have tasted it. In the early Ming Dynasty in the reign of Yongle when Zheng He sailed the Western Ocean, our country was open. After Yongle died the dynasty went into decline. China was invaded. Counting from the middle of the Ming Dynasty to the Opium Wars, through 300 years of isolation China was made poor, and became backward and mired in darkness and ignorance. No open door is not an option.” — Deng Xiaoping
China seems to have been long stationary, and had probably long ago acquired that full complement of riches which is consistent with the nature of its laws and institutions. But this complement may be much inferior to what, with other laws and institutions, the nature of its soil, climate, and situation might admit of. A country which neglects or despises foreign commerce, and which admits the vessels of foreign nations into one or two of its ports only, cannot transact the same quantity of business which it might do with different laws and institutions … A more extensive foreign trade … could scarce fail to increase very much the manufactures of China, and to improve very much the productive powers of its manufacturing industry. By a more extensive navigation, the Chinese would naturally learn the art of using and constructing themselves all the different machines made use of in other countries, as well as the other improvements of art and industry which are practised in all the different parts of the world. — Adam Smith
Niall Ferguson attempts to explain why the West led the world in recent centuries, and what this could mean for the future.
Before industrialisation, Europe lagged behind China
- Adam Smith once referred to China as one of the richest countries, implying its historical wealth and prosperity.
- Marco Polo was impressed by the traffic on the Yangzi during his visit in the 1270s.
- Ming China was considered the most advanced civilisation in the world by 1420.
- A comparison between the Thames and the Yangzi rivers in 1420 would have shown a stark contrast in development and activity.
- Nanjing was possibly the largest city in the world in 1420.
- The Thames was described as a backwater in the early fifteenth century.
- The Ming dynasty’s encyclopaedia was the world’s largest until surpassed by Wikipedia in 2007.
- Ming China was seen as a relatively pleasant place to live compared to fifteenth-century Europe.
- London’s poor sanitation contrasted with the systematic collection and use of human excrement as fertilizer in Chinese cities.
- Data suggest a high annual homicide rate in fourteenth-century Oxford.
- Asian agriculture was deemed more productive than European.
- An acre of land in Asia could support a family due to efficient rice cultivation, unlike in England where 20 acres were needed.
As a result, China got a head start on many technologies
- The printing press with movable type and other inventions like paper and paper money originated in China long before their introduction in the West.
- The first blast furnace for smelting iron ore was built in China before 200 BC, not in Coalbrookdale in 1709.
- The world’s first iron suspension bridge is Chinese, dating from AD 65.
- Chinese literature from the late fourteenth century describes advanced military technologies.
- British iron-production levels in 1788 were still lower than China’s in 1078.
- Zheng He’s treasure ship was significantly larger than Columbus’s Santa María.
- Zheng He’s navy was unprecedented in size until the First World War.
When China turned inwards, it squandered it’s lead
- Ming China imposed severe restrictions on shipbuilding and seafaring from 1500 onwards, affecting its naval capabilities.
- Deng Xiaoping claimed that closed-door policies lead to underdevelopment, citing China’s history of isolation and decline as evidence.
- Adam Smith attributed Europe’s advancement over China to the latter’s failure to engage in foreign commerce, missing out on the benefits of comparative advantage and international division of labor.
- It is claimed that Confucian philosophy inhibited innovation.
- The economic stagnation in Ming China contrasted with England’s escape from the Malthusian trap through overseas expansion and trade.
- The reasons behind Ming China’s inward turn and the consequences of this decision are debated but seen as pivotal.
- European motivations for exploration were economic and political, unlike the symbolic tribute-seeking of Chinese expeditions.
- European territorial ambitions and commercial fervor contrasted with Chinese restraint.
- The Portuguese were noted for their economic drive and brutality compared to the Chinese.
- The fall of the Ming dynasty and the transition to anarchy in the seventeenth century were rapid.
- The Qing Emperor’s dismissive response to British attempts to open trade reflects China’s resistance to foreign innovation.
Cultural and political differences powered East-West divergence
Europe generally fared better than the East, but Britain fared best of all.
- Differences in the pursuit and application of scientific knowledge contributed to the divergence between Western and Eastern civilisations.
- The British and Iberian colonization models in America had differing long-term economic and social outcomes.
- China’s top-down Confucian bureaucracy contrasted with the more varied governance in medieval European kingdoms.
- The Enlightenment and its revolutionary consequences were shaped by a mix of aristocratic and intellectual influences in Europe.
- The allure of Western consumer goods, such as jeans and rock music, highlighted the cultural and economic appeal of the West even in communist societies.
- The distribution of land and political power in British and Spanish American colonies led to different paths of development and democracy.
- The idea of property rights and constitutional government underpinned the success of British colonies in North America.
- The Protestant work ethic contributed significantly to the development of Western economies and the spread of literacy.
- The adaptability and competitiveness of Western institutions, such as the corporation and the nation-state, have been crucial to its global influence.
- The competition in the West, driven by the Age of Exploration, is considered a key advantage over other civilisations.
- The political fragmentation of Europe facilitated competition and innovation, contributing to its ascendancy.
- Europe’s constant warfare spurred military and fiscal innovation, unlike in more unified China.
- European states became adept at raising revenue for warfare, surpassing China’s capabilities.
- European political fragmentation and the resultant competition contrast with East Asia’s unified political landscape under Chinese dominance.
- Political fragmentation in Europe prevented any single monarch from halting overseas exploration, unlike in China.
- European monarchs promoted commerce, conquest, and colonization as part of inter-monarchical competition.
Since industrialisation, Britain dominated
- England was described as more prosperous and less violent than other European countries.
- Life was considered harsher in France and even worse further east in Europe.
- The Opium Wars highlighted Western military and technological superiority and marked a significant humiliation for China.
- European writers believed Western technology, particularly that which led to the Industrial Revolution, was superior to that of the East.
- European innovation extended to government borrowing and the development of bond markets, which were absent in Ming China.
- Western science’s superiority over Eastern knowledge contributed significantly to Western dominance in global affairs.
- English diets and productivity were enhanced by American crops and colonisation, unlike the consequences of intensified rice cultivation in China and Japan.
- The discovery and colonisation of the Americas played a crucial role in the ascendancy of the West, though its impact is debated.
- Slavery and segregation were impediments to American development, contrary to beliefs that attributed American prosperity to racial segregation.
Competition with the Islamic world
- The Muslim world’s initial scientific leadership eventually gave way to Western advancements.
- Islamic contributions to science and education, such as the establishment of the University of Al-Karaouine, were significant in the medieval period.
- Clashes between West and East date back to the early Islamic expansions.
- Ottoman expansions into Europe and their eventual decline illustrate the shifting balance of power between East and West.
- Resistance to printing in the Muslim world, due to the sacredness of script, contrasted with the rapid spread of printed materials in the West. The Muslim world’s initial scientific leadership eventually gave way to Western advancements.
- European monarchs’ support for science, even in the face of clerical opposition, contrasted with the Ottoman Empire’s stagnation in scientific progress.
Modern implications
Since the 20th century, the East has undergone an intentional process of Westernisation. This has delivered significant progress. In the meantime, Europe has lost its edge.
- Historical collapses of civilisations, such as the Roman Empire and the Ming dynasty, serve as reminders that no civilisation is immune to rapid decline.
- Predictions about economic shifts can be dramatically wrong, as shown by historical miscalculations regarding China and Western Europe.
- Admiral Zheng He’s legacy in China has transformed from obscurity to heroism, reflecting changing attitudes towards China’s maritime past.
- The potential for religious revival in China, through the spread of Protestantism, could have significant implications for its social and economic development.
- The decline of Western religious and ethical foundations raises questions about the future sustainability of its economic and social models.
- The possible challenges to China’s continued rise, including economic bubbles, social unrest, political demands from a growing middle class, and international tensions, are noted.
- The rapid industrialization and urbanization of China pose both opportunities and challenges for its future development and stability.
- The current decline in European work ethic and religious observance raises concerns about the sustainability of its economic models.
Find the book here.